A Comparison of the Effects of Smartphone-Assisted Processing Instruction, Face-to-Face Processing Instruction, and Traditional Instruction on Iranian EFL Learners’ Acquisition of the Future Perfect Tense

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics, Department of English Language, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Gonabad, Gonabad, Iran

2 PhD Student of Applied Linguistics, Department of English, Faculty of Letters and Humanities, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

Abstract

Processing Instruction (PI) is an input-based approach to grammar instruction grounded in VanPatten’s Input Processing theory. It emphasizes the provision of structured input to help learners establish effective form–meaning connections during language processing. Meanwhile, the growing integration of mobile technologies into language education has created new opportunities for increasing access to instructional input, promoting repeated exposure to target forms, and supporting self-paced learning. Building on these perspectives, the present study investigated the effects of smartphone-assisted Processing Instruction on the comprehension and production of the future perfect tense among Iranian first-year undergraduate students majoring in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) and compared its effectiveness with face-to-face Processing Instruction and traditional grammar instruction. The study adopted a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest control-group design involving three intact grammar classes. Participants were assigned to one of three instructional conditions: smartphone-assisted Processing Instruction, face-to-face Processing Instruction, or traditional instruction. The data were analyzed using one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA). The findings revealed that both Processing Instruction groups significantly outperformed the traditional instruction group in the comprehension and production of the target structure. Furthermore, students who received smartphone-assisted Processing Instruction achieved significantly higher posttest scores than those in the face-to-face Processing Instruction group. These findings suggest that integrating mobile technologies with Processing Instruction can enhance grammar learning in educational contexts similar to that of the present study. The study contributes to the growing body of research on technology-enhanced grammar instruction and underscores the need for further research across different linguistic structures, proficiency levels, and educational contexts.

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History

  • Receive Date: 11 April 2026
  • Revise Date: 14 May 2026
  • Accept Date: 09 June 2026
  • Publish Date: 21 June 2026

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